[Sticky] Long list of past papers - mixed

RE: Long list of past exam questions - mixed papers

Muscles
"A must for all students"By Redapple

Humans have over 650 muscles, which differ in size according to the jobs they do. These muscles constitute 40% of body weight. The special function of muscle tissue is contraction. There are three kinds of muscle tissue: striated muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Most of the body's muscle consists of striated muscle, which is the skeletal muscle. It is also called voluntary muscle because it can be consciously controlled via the central nervous system. Smooth muscle is the muscle of the internal organs and is called involuntary because it is not under voluntary control. Cardiac muscle is a special type of muscle found only in the heart. It consists of linked fibers that contract in unison producing the heartbeat.

The muscles are biological machines, which convert chemical energy into force and mechanical work. The energy for contraction comes from the mechanical reaction between the food we eat and the oxygen we breathe. Almost all the sugars in food are converted into glucose, the fuel of muscles. Muscles, therefore, need a good blood supply to bring nutrients and oxygen and to remove chemical waste products. The actual chemical process involves the breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water. This process releases energy, which is used by the muscle proteins to cause contraction. This process is known as aerobic glycolysis and involves first the production of a 3-carbon substance, pyruvate, which when combined with oxygen, is broken down further to water and carbon dioxide by a cycle of enzymes in the mitochondria, the Krebs cycle. This chemical reaction requires a great supply of oxygen, which is often not available during intense exercise. During exercise, a muscle requires about fifty times more oxygen per minute than at rest. To overcome this low level of oxygen the muscles are able to convert the glucose into a substance called lactic acid, without the use of oxygen, which still gives the necessary release of energy. For a short period of time, this process, called anaerobic glycolysis, is a highly efficient means of harvesting energy. Unfortunately, an accumulation of lactic acid from intense exercise causes the energy processes within a cell to cease, which eventually fatigues the muscles and causes cramps. Removal of lactic acid requires oxygen. To acquire the large amount of oxygen required, the body causes panting after exercise. The lactic acid is removed, as normal circulation is re-established. Muscles are also able to store glucose. It is stored in the form of glycogen (a carbohydrate) granules. This store is used during exercise.

Skeletal muscles contract rapidly in response to messages from the central nervous system. Each group of several fibers receives a nerve supply that allows voluntary contraction of the muscle. Muscles can move some body parts in several directions and others in only two directions. The direction the body part is moved depends largely on the shapes of the bones at the joints. The stimulus for the muscle contraction begins in the cerebral cortex and passes down the spinal cord and the nerve root to the junction between the nerve fibre and the muscle surface. This gap, called the end plate, acts as a kind of amplifier, increasing the effect of the tiny current coming down the nerve fibre to stimulate the much larger muscle fibre. On the arrival of the nerve impulse, a chemical called acetylcholine is released from the motor nerve ending and passes across the gap to stimulate the membrane of the muscle fibre. This stimulation is in the form of an electric current, which passes along the surface of the muscle, causing it to contract. It takes one millisecond (1/1000th of a second) for the current to pass along the surface of the muscular fibre.

Muscles work by contracting and relaxing. During contraction they shorten their length to bring the bone closer to their points of attachment on two different bones. Every muscle movement, therefore, is a pull. This pulling action is accomplished by the fibers and fibrils of the muscle. All skeletal muscles are made up of small fibers. The fibers are cylindrical in shape and are several centimetres long, with regular bands (striations) dividing them into sections. The fibers are made up of many cylindrical subunits called fibrils. These are the structures that actually contract. Muscular fibers are able to shorten 30% to 40% in length during muscle contraction. Fibrils are made of two types of protein: actin and myosin. These proteins are in the form of long filaments. The filaments made of myosin are thicker than the filaments made of actin. These filaments interlock and are able to slide over each other, shortening the length of the muscle.

When the muscle is stretched the filaments tend to be pulled apart. During shortening (contraction), they shorten by sliding into one another. It appears that during contraction several cross-links are made between the actin and myosin filaments. By the process of making and breaking these cross-links, the two filaments move towards one another and the whole muscle shortens. This process is very rapid. Cardiac muscle has a similar appearance to skeletal muscle. It has striations and is thought to contract in the same manner as the skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle has no striations and is composed of small spindle-shaped cells totally lacking in filaments. Researchers still do not understand the mechanism of smooth muscle contraction.

The muscle's points of attachment to bones or other muscles are designated as origin or insertion. The point of origin is the point of attachment to the bone to which the muscle is anchored. The point of insertion is the point of attachment to the bone the muscle moves. Generally, the muscles are attached by tough fibrous structures called tendons. These attachments bridge one or more joints and the result of muscle contraction is movement of these joints. Primarily muscle groups move the body, not by individual muscles. These groups of muscles power all actions ranging from the threading of a needle to the lifting of heavy weights.

The Trapezius is one of the biggest shoulder muscles and the most superficial muscle on the back of the neck and upper trunk. It is a broad, flat triangular muscle that lies just below the skin, covering the upper back part of the neck and shoulders. It links the neck with the spine (dorsal vertebrae), ribs, and shoulder bones (scapula). This muscle is used to turn and tilt the head, raise and twist the arms, and to shrug or steady the shoulders. The trapezius is a postural muscle as well as an active mover.
Between the masses of the hamstring and quadriceps groups and ends, at its wide apex, on the back of the femur. It is a powerful muscle that adducts the thigh. The small uppermost portion of the adductor Magnus is called the adductor minimus.

The Erector Spinae, or sacrospinalis, consists of several combined muscles that form a thick, elongated muscle mass that runs from the top of the neck to the small of the back. The overlapping column of long, slim muscles stretch alongside to the rear of the vertebrae. These muscles link the vertebrae, helping you to stand upright and enabling you to bend and twist.

The base of this triangular muscle is attached along the lumbar and lower half of the thoracic vertebrae (spine), the lower ribs, and even the hip bones far below. The Latissimus Dorsi is a wide, flat muscle located on the lower half of the back. The muscle fibers at its tip insert under the scapula (shoulder blade) and join to the humerus (upper arm bone) in the shoulder. This muscle gives your arms motion. It is used when swimming or when you swing your arms back when jogging. It is also used to reach up to grab something above your head.

The Serratus Anterior (serratus magnus) is a large quadrilateral muscle that curves along the rib cage. The muscle is divided into several bundles, each of which extends along the side and upper border of each rib. The muscle is divided into two portions, and upper and lower portion. The upper portion lies along the upper side of the rib cage and the armpit. The lower portion consists of five or six pointed digitations, which create a fan-shaped mass extending from the scapula (shoulder blade). This muscle is used every time you reach out or push forward with your arms. It also helps raise the shoulder joint when lifting your arm above your head.

We sit on the most powerful and largest muscle in our body, the Gluteus Maximus. It is a thick, fleshy, quadrilateral muscle that forms the major volume of the buttock. The muscle descends downward and outward from its origin and wraps around the outer back corner of the pelvis. It connects the ilium, sacrum, and coccyx to the femur by tissues of the thigh. The gluteus maximus consists of coarse muscle fibers that powerfully extend (straightens) the thigh at the hip joint and moves it away from the body, as when walking or running. It is also used to raise the body from a sitting position.

The Gluteus Medius is a wide, fan-shaped muscle that tapers into a strong flattened tendon at its insertion on the femur (thigh bone). It runs from the outer portion of the ilium (pelvis), up to the crest of the ilium. The gluteus medius is partly covered by the gluteus maximus. You can feel the crest of the gluteus medius through the skin. It moves the thigh outward and rotates it, as when walking or running. It keeps the torso upright during walking when one foot is touching the ground and the other is not touching the ground. The Gluteus Minimus lies just beneath the gluteus medius and works with it.

The Pectoralis Major muscle is located at the front of the thoracic cage. It is a thick, fan-shaped muscle and is divided into two parts that begin at the armpit and cover most of the front of the chest. The upper, or clavicular, part is attached to the clavicle (collar bone). The lower, or sternocostal, is attached mainly to the sternum (breast bone) and costal cartilage. This muscle is used when you bring your arms across the chest, raise and lower the arms and to rotate the arms. The clavicular portion will raise the arm, while the sternocostal portion will pull it down.

The Abdominus Rectus is a long, flat, vertical muscle located along the front of the abdomen. It is wide and thin at its point of origin along the crest of the pubic bone (pelvis) and tapers below to insert in the cartilage of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs. This muscle is used when you bend forward. It also tenses the abdominal wall and aids in compressing the contents of the abdomen. The muscle is enclosed in a sheath of fascia that holds it in position, but does not restrict its movement during its contractions.

The internal oblique is a small, thin, deep muscle of the abdomen. It has a quadrilateral form running from the hip bone (crest of the ilium) to the cartilage of the lower ribs (the seventh, eighth, and ninth ribs). This muscle works with the external oblique to help twist the torso.

The external oblique is a large, thin sheet of muscle that runs along the side of the torso and partly on the front. The muscle is divided into two portions; and upper thoracic portion and a lower flank portion. The thoracic portion is located along the rib cage. The individual ribs can be seen beneath this muscle when it is relaxed. The lower flank portion is located along the side of the abdomen between the rib cage and the pelvis. Most of this muscle is concealed by fat. The two portions meet at the waist. This muscle is used when you bend forward and twist from side to side.

The intercostals are long belt-shaped muscles that form thin sheets of muscles weaved between the bones of the rib cage. They are your breathing muscles. As they contract, they pull the ribs up to expand the chest with every breath.

The Diaphragm is the primary muscle responsible for respiration. Connected to the abdominal wall, the lumbar vertebra, the lower ribs, the sternum, and the pericardium of the heart by tendinous tissue, the thin diaphragm creates a partition between the thoracic and abdominal cavity. The diaphragm forms a domed structure, and when the diaphragm muscle contracts, it lowers to a more flattened arrangement. This flattening causes a vacuum in the thoracic cavity and pressure in the abdominal cavity. The vacuum is filled by the expanding lung tissue and inhaled air. The pressure on the lower viscera is helpful in childbirth and in pushing fecal matter through the lower intestinal tract for expulsion. When the diaphragm relaxes to its domed structure, the air is pushed out (exhaled) and the lungs contract. Though the intercostal and abdominal muscles are also used in respiration, during sleep, it is primarily due to contractions of the diaphragm.

The Deltoid Muscle is a thick triangular muscle, which cups the shoulder joint. It is attached to the clavicle (collar bone) and scapula (shoulder blade) at its upper end, and to the shaft of the humerus (upper arm bone) at its lower end. The muscle is divided into three portions: an anterior (clavicular) portion, and acrominal (middle) portion, and a posterior portion. The posterior portion is located on the back of the shoulder. Almost any movement of your shoulder and upper arm involves the deltoid muscle. The anterior portion is used to raise the arm from the body and to lower it again. The acrominal portion is a powerful abductor and the posterior portion is used to move the arm backward.

The Biceps Brachii (two-headed arm muscle) consists of the long head and the short head. It extends from the shoulder to the elbow and is the main flexor of the elbow joint. When working with other nearby muscles, it can also move the shoulder, since its upper ends are attached to the scapula (shoulder blade). In addition it can twist the lower arm so that the palm faces outward, a movement called supination. At the lower end, the biceps tapers into a flat, strong tendon that is firmly fixed to a bulge on the upper end of the radius. The biceps and the triceps work together to control the up and down movement of the forearm.
The Triceps Brachii (three-headed muscle) lies at the upper portion of the inside of the arm. It is the main extensor of the arm and is made up of three teardrop shaped heads: the long head, the lateral head, and the medial head. When working with other nearby muscles it can also move the shoulder, since its upper ends are attached to the scapula. The long head, the largest of the three heads, is attached to the scapula (shoulder blade) just below the rounded socket of the shoulder joint, and extends almost three-fourths of the way toward the front of the arm. The lateral head lies on the back and side of the upper arm. The medial head curves around the back of the humerus (upper arm bone) and is mostly covered by the long head. The lower end is attached to the flattened end of the ulna. The triceps brachii extend the forearm at the elbow joint. It works with the biceps brachii to control the up and down movement of the forearm.

The Brachialis is a slender, flat muscle that lies under the biceps along the front of the lower half of the humerus (upper arm bone) and in front of the elbow joint. This muscle protects the elbow, and helps flex (bend) and rotate the forearm.

The Rectus Femoris is one of the four bellies of the quadriceps muscle group. The quadriceps muscle group consists of four muscles: the rectus femoris, the vastus lateralis, the vastus intermedius, and the vastus medialis. It is a large fleshy mass that covers the front and sides of the femur bone (upper leg bone). The muscles work together as the primary extensor of the knee. The rectus femoris is the only two-joint muscle in the group, crossing both the knee and the hip joint. It originates at the back of the inferior iliac spine and inserts in the top of the patella (knee cap). This long, flat muscle extends the leg at the knee joint and flexes the thigh at the hip joint. When the rectus femoris is contracted, the knee joint is straightened and the lower leg is extended. When it is relaxed, the lower leg is flexed (bent at the knee).
The Vastus Lateralis is the largest of the quadriceps muscles. The quadriceps muscle group consists of four muscles: the rectus femoris, the vastus lateralis, the vastus intermedius, and the vastus medialis. They form a large fleshy mass that covers the front and sides of the femur (upper leg bone) and work as the primary extensor of the knee. The vastus lateralis occupies the outside of the thigh and extends partially around to the front and back of the thigh. It extends the lower leg at the knee joint and is used when rising from a squatting position.
The Vastus Medialis is the deepest of the quadriceps muscles. The quadriceps muscle group consists of four muscles: the rectus femoris, the vastus lateralis, the vastus intermedius, and the vastus medialis. These muscles form a large, fleshy mass that covers the front and sides of the femur (upper leg bone). They are the primary extensor of the knee. The vastus medialis is a bulging teardrop form located on the inner front corner of the lower thigh. It can be divided into two portions, the vastus medialis longus, which extends the knee, and the vastus medialis oblique.
The Vastus Intermedius is and extensive muscle that lies deep to all the other quadriceps bellies, adding muscular fullness under them. The quadriceps muscles consist of: the rectus femoris, the vastus lateralis, the vastus intermedius, and the vastus medialis. These muscles form a large fleshy mass that covers the front and sides of the femur (upper leg bone). They work together as the primary extensor of the knee.

The calf, ankle, and foot are controlled largely by a series of muscles and tendons that function as a single biomechanical unit. These muscles work together to lift or lower the heel for virtually any activity that involves locomotion. All of the parts of the lower leg are interconnected. For example, when you stand on your toes, you can feel the muscles in the back of your calf doing most of the work. Because of its structure, and because it absorbs the impact from activities like running and jumping, the lower leg is subject to more exercise-related injuries than any other area of the body. These problems range from bunions and blisters to stress fractures and ankle sprains, the most common sports injury of all.
The Biceps Femoris is included with the Hamstring Muscles. It is a large muscle comprised of two heads (two points of attachment to the bone), the long head, and the short head. The two muscles converge to a single tendon of insertion. This common tendon is located on the outer back corner of the knee and forms the outer hamstring. Both heads of the muscle flex (bend) the lower leg at the knee joint and rotate the tibia outward. The long head also assists with the extension and outward rotation of the thigh at the hip joint, making it a two-joint muscle, while the short head is a single-joint muscle. The Semimembranosus muscle is one of the hamstring muscles. It flexes the lower leg at the knee joint and rotates it in. It consists of a fleshy muscle belly with a tendon at each end. The muscle fibers extend downward from the knee to the middle of the outer condyle of the femur (upper leg bone). The tendon of the semimembranosus muscle, along with the semitendinosus and gracilis, form the inner hamstring.

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RE: Long list of past exam questions - mixed papers

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The Semitendinosus originates from the ischium (hip). Its long, narrow, fleshy belly ends two-thirds of the way down the thigh at its tendon. It sits in the muscular groove formed in the semimembranosus muscle at the inner back of the thigh. This muscle flexes the lower leg and extends the thigh at the hip joint. It is considered one of the hamstring muscles. Its tendon, along with the tendons of the semimembranosus and the gracilis, form the inner hamstring.

There are three Adductor muscles in the legs, the Adductor Longus, the Adductor Brevis, and the Adductor Magnus. The three adductors work with the pectineus to move the thigh inward. They are powerful muscles that rotate the thigh outward and bring it across the opposite side, as when crossing your legs. The adductor longus is a long triangular muscle, originating with both fleshy fibers and a strong tendon from a small area on the front of the pubic bone of the pelvis and inserts in the femur (upper leg bone). The adductor brevis lies just behind the adductor longus. The adductor magnus is a large triangular muscle that forms a dividing wall between the muscles of the inner thigh and those on the back of the thigh. It is located on the inside of the thigh. This long muscle arises from a narrow point on the pelvis bone, passes between the masses of the hamstring and quadriceps groups and ends, at its wide apex, on the back of the femur. It is a powerful muscle that adducts the thigh. The small uppermost portion of the adductor magnus is called the adductor minimus.

The Sartorius is the body's longest muscle. It is a long, narrow, ribbon-like muscle that spirals down the thigh. It begins on the front of the hip, where it originates at the front point of the pelvis (the tip of the anterior superior iliac spine), runs down and across the front of the thigh, and along the inner side of the knee where it is anchored on the upper end of the tibia. This muscle is a powerful flexor of the thigh. It helps bend both hip and knee and twist the leg allowing you to sit cross-legged.

The Tensor Fascia Lata is a short, thick, teardrop-shaped muscle that is located on the outer front corner of the ilium (pelvis). It connects the ilium to the tissues of the thigh. The muscle's form begins at the front point of the hip and ends where the muscle attaches to the iliotibial band. In the standing position, the belly becomes stretched into an elongated oval shape, but as the thigh is flexed, it changes into its characteristic teardrop shape. This muscle flexes, abducts, and medially rotates the thigh.

The Gastrocnemius muscle is connected at two joints, the knee, and the ankle. It consists of a lateral head, a medial head, and their single tendon of insertion. Each head is a thick muscular column, separated from the other by the back of the knee. As they descend, they come together. The medial head is larger and wraps around the leg more towards the front than does the lateral head. The muscular heads end at or slightly above the middle of the leg, where they attach to their tendon. The two heads form the bulging "belly" of the calf of the leg. Their tendon descends and fuses with the tendon of the soleus, which lies just beneath it, forming the Achilles tendon, which inserts in the heel bone. The gastrocnemius muscle propels the body when walking, running, or jumping. It raises the heel, which lifts the body. It also assists, though minimally, in flexing the knee joint.

The Tibialis Anterior is a thick and fleshy muscle that, as the name implies, sits on the front of the tibia, the main lower leg bone. It originates from the upper half of the tibia, just below the knee and tapers into a long, prominent tendon about two-thirds of the way down the leg. The long tendon goes through the ankle to insert in the bottom of the inside arch of the foot (in the tarsal bones). This muscle controls the descent of the foot during walking after the heel strikes the ground.

The soleus is a thick muscle located on the back of the lower leg. It originates from the upper part of the fibula lower leg bone) and the tendonous arch connecting the head of the fibula to the tibia. The muscle is thickest at its mid-section where its flattened form curves around the deep flexor muscles of the foot and toes. The muscle tapers low, just above the ankle, and its tendon continues on inserting in the middle part of the calcaneum (heel bone). This muscle is used to point the foot or raise the heel, which lifts the body. Its continuous contraction of the soleus prevents the body from falling forward when standing.

I do hope this helps you in your studies in the muscular system, it helped me no end.

A Must for Students "What you need to know about massage" by Redapple

Massage affects the body as a whole. To understand how massage therapy works, some of the physiological effects of massage need to be briefly examined.
Massage is known to increase the circulation of blood and flow of lymph. The direct mechanical effect of rhythmically applied manual pressure and movement used in massage can dramatically increase the rate of blood flow. Also, the stimulation of nerve receptors causes the blood vessels (by reflex action) to dilate, which also facilitates blood flow.
A milky white fluid called lymph carries impurities and waste away from the tissues and passes through gland-like structures spaced throughout the lymphatic system that act as filtering valves. The lymph does not circulate as the blood does, so its movement depends largely on the squeezing effect of muscle contractions. Consequently, inactive people fail to stimulate lymph flow. On the other hand, the increased waste produced by that activity could outstrip the stimulation caused by vigorous activity. Massage can dramatically aid the movement of lymph in either case.
For the whole body to be healthy, the sum of its parts - the cells - must be healthy. The individual cells of the body are dependent on an abundant supply of blood and lymph because these fluids supply nutrients and oxygen and carry away wastes and toxins. So, it is easy to understand why good circulation is so important to our health and why massage can be so beneficial for the entire body due to its effect on circulation alone.
Massage is also known to:
· Cause changes in the blood. The oxygen capacity of the blood can increase 10-15% after massage.
· Affect muscles throughout the body. Massage can help loosen contracted, shortened muscles and can stimulate weak, flaccid muscles. This muscle "balancing" can help posture and promote more efficient movement. Massage does not directly increase muscle strength, but it can speed recovery from the fatigue that occurs after exercise. In this way, it can be possible to do more exercise and training, which in the long run strengthens muscles and improves conditioning. Massage also provides a gentle stretching action to both the muscles and connective tissues that surround and support the muscles and many other parts of the body, which helps keep these tissues elastic.
· Increase the body's secretions and excretions There is a proven increase in the production of gastric juices, saliva, and urine.
· There is also increased excretion of nitrogen, inorganic phosphorus, and sodium chloride (salt). This suggests that the metabolic rate (the utilisation of absorbed material by the body's cells) increases.
· Affect the nervous system. Massage balances the nervous system by soothing or stimulating it, depending on which effect is needed by the individual at the time of the massage
· Enhance skin condition. Massage directly improves the function of the sebaceous (oil) and sweat glands, which keep the skin lubricated, clean, cooled. Tough, inflexible skin can become softer and suppler.
· Affect internal organs. By indirectly or directly stimulating nerves that supply internal organs, blood vessels of these organs dilate and allow greater blood supply to them.
Knowing about the physiological effects of massage makes it possible to better understand the health and fitness benefits of massage.
What takes place under a massage therapist's hands has profound importance for those interested in health and fitness - in "tuning up" their bodies. In every sport or form of exercise, massage can help. By helping to reduce physiological fatigue and aid recovery from the exertion of working out or playing, massage enables training better, with longer, more effective workouts, thus facilitating better performance and preventing injury.
The people of ancient Mediterranean civilisations knew this. After bathing and exercise, they included a full body massage. The ancients understood that education involves equal development of mind and body. The modern public's interest in physical fitness, holistic health, wellness and human potential represents a bid to revive a time-honoured philosophy
For most people embarking on a fitness program, often the spirit is willing but the flesh is not. When regular exercise is begun almost every part of the body changes. Of interest to massage therapists is the way blood vessels become more intricate in order to meet the bodies demand for more oxygen, to supply more nutrients, to permit more elimination. This takes time. While the muscles are getting into shape, they have trouble getting enough oxygen and nutrients, and wastes back up and stagnate. Unfortunately, many exercise programs regard aches and pains as the inevitable price to be paid. This is simply not true because massage can be used as the Greeks and Romans used it -- to increase endurance, control fatigue, and feel better as part of a regular health program.
Massage acts to disperse the accumulated by-products of muscle action that irritate muscles and nerve endings. Lactic and carbonic acids build up in muscle tissue shortly after exercise begins. These acids are waste products that contribute to causation of the pain and occasional cramping that exercisers, athletes, dancers, etc. suffer during and/or after workouts or performing. These acids are formed when the glycogen stored in the liver and muscles is burned to produce the energy expended during exercise. The acids must eventually be reconverted to glycogen and stored again, or drained out via the lymph and circulatory systems. Pain and fatigue persists until this process of reconverting or excreting is completed. Massage can help eliminate the irritation caused by these wastes, thus increasing muscle recovery rates. Where massage has been substituted for rest, an increase from 20-75%, even 100% muscle recovery has been recorded. For example, this is why boxers are massaged rather than rested between rounds.
Joints are critical to exercise because joints are moved by the muscles to produce movement. All joints are complicated, and their parts have a way of settling and stiffening when not used. A sluggish, numbed feeling in the joints discourages exercise. A massage therapist counteracts this by using massage strokes and passive movement to release the muscle tension and free the connective tissue found around the joints that could bind the joints.
Massage also aids recovery from soft tissue injuries such as sprains and strains. This is possible because the growth and repair of tissue are accelerated by efficient circulation in the injured areas and appropriate stimulation of the healing tissues. Many soft tissue injuries are not serious enough to cause one to visit a doctor or hospital for treatment, or are only treated with some first aid, but still cause some discomfort and disability. Massage therapy can often help speed and improve recovery and reduce discomfort from such mishaps. In this way, massage helps bridge the gap between common neglect of injury and major medical intervention.
Increased health awareness has also increased nutrition awareness. The most carefully planned diet is partly wasted if blood vessels are not developed and open so that nutrition can reach the cells. Massage can aid internal nutrition rates by improving circulation.
The relationship of stress and illness is of interest to anyone maintaining their health. We all have stress in our daily lives caused by our work, or family environment, or outside social pressures. Mental tensions, frustrations, and insecurity are among the most damaging. Stress causes the release of hormones that create vasoconstriction - vessel shrinking - and reduced circulation. Affected by stress, the heart works harder, breathing becomes rapid and shallow, and digestion slows. Nearly every body process is degraded. Psychosomatic studies show how stress factors can cause migraines, hypertension, depression, some peptic ulcers, etc. Researchers have estimated that 80% of disease is stress related. Soothing and relaxing massage therapy can help by counteracting stress effects.
Massage has a definite psychological effect. Since massage animates the tactile sense, the body's primary sense, it brings people into the here and now and away from tension generated by constant preoccupation with problems. Also, loosening of muscle tension or "armoring" - the physical counterpart to how we defend and protect ourselves from psychological pain - can lead to freeing of repressed emotions.
Users of massage therapy as a healing tool quickly realise that they have found a form of drugless therapy. Headaches, insomnia, digestive disorders including constipation and spastic colon, arthritis, asthma, carpal tunnel syndrome, sinusitis, and minor aches and pains are some of the problems that can respond to massage therapy. Massage can have an excellent effect on nervous people who have been dependent on their pharmacy for rest and relaxation.
Simply stated, the foundation stone of the therapeutic effect of massage is what Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, defined as 'vis medicatrix naturae' or, the body's natural recuperative powers, the life force. Massage therapy essentially promotes health by boosting the body's own processes.
While this article has focused on how massage can help tune the body, and on its concrete scientific effects, it should also be mentioned that massage can be seen as a healing art as well as a science. The theories of therapeutic massage are scientific in character, but the actual application of these theories is an art, for it involves the healing sense, sensitivity of touch, insight, and intuition. It is a unique way of communicating without words, sharing energy, enjoying pleasurable relaxation, and experiencing peace of mind. Massage is often attributed to have ethereal spiritual effects akin to those of meditation.
The past ten years or so have seen a proliferation of different terms, titles, and systems of massage such as: Therapeutic, Holistic, Swedish, Sports, Neuromuscular, Bodywork, Oriental, Shiatsu, Acupressure, Esalen, Reichian, Polarity, Reflexology, etc. For the sake of clarity, the term 'massage' or 'massage therapy', as used in this article, refers to the scientific manipulation of the soft tissues. The thing to keep in mind is that every healing art that employs massage therapy should include some form of kneading, pressing, or stroking with the use of pressure and movement, no matter how slight the touch or how often it is used.
One of the best ways of finding a massage therapist is to have a referral. A recommendation from a friend, who is or has been receiving massage therapy, is usually fortuitous. Alternatively, a health professional, who is knowledgeable about the various forms of complementary and alternative health care, such as massage therapy, or to contact the L.C.S.P. Whenever interviewing a massage therapist you should always feel comfortable asking if they have graduated from a school that is accredited or approved by a credible accrediting agency such as the L.C.S.P.
In terms of what to expect during a massage therapy session, they generally are an hour in length. Clients are usually asked to remove as much clothing as one is comfortable with and rest on a padded massage table. To respect personal privacy and provide adequate warmth, the client is covered or draped with a sheet or towel so that only the part of the body being worked on is exposed at any given time.
Whether or not you would expect to talk during a session depends on your need at the time. Some clients need to talk. Some need silence. Massage therapists will usually try to accommodate what the client needs. However, sometimes talking detracts from entering a state of relaxation or experiencing the physical or non-verbal dimensions of the massage. In any case, feel comfortable giving feedback about your needs and what you like or do not like during the session. Good communication enhances the massage session.
The massage therapist will likely use a high quality oil or lotion, but if you have an allergic response you should let the massage therapist know. Some massage therapists offer to play music during a session, others may feel it is distracting. It is best not to have eaten just before a session. Your massage therapist can answer many other questions you may have. If for any reason you must miss a massage appointment, your massage therapist will surely appreciate being notified as soon as possible.
To enjoy the benefits of massage which have been discussed, it is best to receive a therapeutic massage from a practitioner who has blended a thorough knowledge of anatomy, physiology, kinesiology, and massage technique with a sensitive, powerful touch and the healing sense. To your health!

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RE: Long list of past exam questions - mixed papers

Gussie's post continued...

Remedial Massage has no identity problem. It was first accepted as a scientific therapy in the treatment of certain conditions during the 19th century. Although it drifted out of fashion for a time, due to the incessant drive towards technology, those seeking improved health and fitness are once again seeking therapeutic benefits of skilfully applied massage. Remedial massage therapy is available these days in some GP surgeries, hospitals, and health centres, and it plays an important role in the services of sports and athletic centres, beauty clinics, and the like.
Massage cannot lay claim to cure illness but it should not be dismissed as a luxury either. It makes you feel good, outside and in. Gentle massage is painless and effective, treating people for a wide variety of complaints including asthma, arthritis, backache, joint and muscle sprains, headaches, cramp, high blood pressure, insomnia, and rheumatism.
It works by increasing the blood circulation to the area. It enhances the flow of lymph, the body's natural defence against injury. It helps calm and soothe the body in distress, and induces relaxation in areas of tension. Remedial massage is based on the philosophy that the body always wants to be well and so encourages natural healing.
The acceptance and expansion of scientific massage therapy made slow and uneven progress during the first half of this century. But the dramatic acceleration, which began in the sixties, has continued to increase. Public opinion, or perhaps public disillusionment with certain aspects of orthodox and allopathic treatment, has ushered in a new era with a consequent expanding awareness of the various alternative and complementary therapies. This has been encouraged no doubt by the evidence of royal patronage in recent years and the large amount of interest this creates in the media.
Instruction in remedial massage therapy is now a compulsory module of the curricula of schools specialising in the training of acupuncturists, aromatherapists, reflexologists, and therapists in other aspects of alternative medicine. It goes without saying that the principles and practice of remedial massage constitute the core in the training of practitioners of manipulative therapy, some of whom may subsequently practise as osteopaths or chiropractors, and for therapists concerned with the treatment of sporting injuries. There are schools in the U.K. which specialise in the training of remedial masseurs and one in particular, the Northern Institute of Massage at Blackpool, has been in existence since 1924 and can provide up a four-year programme leading to a qualification in manipulative therapy.
How does one contact a bona-fide remedial masseur?
The answer, as with many professions these days, is to look towards the organisations that represent and regulate the persons engaged in them.
The London and Counties Society of Physiologists is probably the oldest established (formed in 1919) and largest association of remedial masseurs and manipulative therapists in private practice in this country. It maintains and publishes an annual register and directory of its qualified practitioner members, and copies are freely available on request from the Society's office at Blackpool. (*). Members of the Society are subject to a strict code of conduct and ethics pertaining to their professional work. This code is enforced when required, and certainly does not exist in name only.
How does all this affect the client?
Firstly he or she is safe in the knowledge that the therapist has undertaken an approved course of training and has acquired the standard of proficiency required for membership of the Society. What's more, every practitioner member of the Society is covered by public liability insurance, in advance of any government legislation.
Massage may well lay claim to bring one of the oldest forms of therapy known to and practised by man throughout the ages. There is clear evidence of its use by physicians in both the Greek and Roman dynasties and, centuries before, during the ancient civilisations of Egypt and China. It has certainly stood the test of time, - and is just as effective now as ever before.
Massage Technical Information
(*) A copy of the National Directory of Practitioners is available free of charge from the Administrative Office

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jonjo's post

Hi Gussie,

Thanks for all this info. I have no chance in the forseeable future of taking the course, but am interested in learning more about A & P so all this info will be really helpful to me.
thanks
jj

RE: Long list of past exam questions - mixed papers

Gussie, What an angel you are. Thank you for taking the time to post all these really useful exam papers, if I find any you haven't got I'll add them on. 🙂

A&P, reflex and prof.conduct ITEC

Hi

Ijust had all these exams today. A&P I found quite difficult. Reflexology and prof conduct are OK.
Here are the (few) questions I can remember ... brain blackout.

REFLEX:

What condition might be indicated through a high arch (ie bad back, lungs etc)

learn ALL the alternative complementary therapies, you get questions on most of them. Inc Bowens, Kinesology, Alexander, Shiatsu and acupressure you need to know the difference between.

A few questions on the hand, and lots of phrases include medial, lateral etc, so make sure you learn which is which.

varicose veins... areas of assistance, learn!

Colitis, direct area

herpes zoster, direct and indirect (can't remember which it was so just learn the lot)

There were no questions on veins or nerves of the leg etc.

Sternum... learn where it is and whether itis medial or lateral side

A & P

Cushings disease cause

learn where the prostrate is situated (answer is between rectum and bladder)

learn what all bone types are. One of the questions was about flat bones and one was about short bones, so make sure you know all the examples of all these.

Learn what prophase is!

which layer of the skin do you find keratin cells

learn the layers of the meninges, you need to know the outer

learn different tissue types. Think a question was on what type of cells line the bladder and also what cells are in lymph vessels.

learn the functions of lymph nodes

Hope that helps any of you that are still to take the exam! The professional conduct questions are really easy and common sense. You need to know about bead sterilisation, what a fungi is, how fungus is transmitted, but it is all straightforward stuff.

BEST OF LUCK!

hi,

I just had ITEC exam, for Beauty therapists, incl. MAchines, Business studies, skincare and eye treatment, waxing, manicure and pedicure, make-up.

Just to let you know that the papers for machines and skincare are quite tough, go over and over contraindications, and local contraindications...If you are counting on the previous pass papers from ITEC-(only for machines and skincare) do not count on them. And do not panic...

The ones I could remember:

1.Contraindications to use of all machines (local contraindications too), including fever, artritis, osteoporosis, and few I never heard of..
2.amount of current flowing-amps
3.Power in current- watts
4.What is ulticaria
5. Vacume suction-all nodes names
6.What type of bone is nasal bone?
7.How many metacarpals
8.When would you use high frequency machine-befor or after another treatment?
9.When to procedure eyebrow shaping?(before cleanse, after massage, before massage)
10.Which part of palm you use durring vibration movements and tapotment?
11.Muscles of arm and leg

make-up (not difficult at all)
1.Bridal make-up, few questions
2.Mature make-up
3.How to cover nosalbia folds
4.How soon after applying moisturiser, foundation should be applied?
5.What os gandelila
6.What type of oil in lipstick

Waxing-straight forward
1.Policystic ovaian syndrome
2.Congenital cause of super flous hair growth
3.Addison's disease
4.Cushing syndrome
5.Regrowth after cool wax-how fast
6.Active ingrediance in depilatory cream

MAnicure-pedicure
1.koilonychia
2.Pterygium
3.Onychoxis
4.Whitlow
5.What is cuticle and hangnail
6.How is lunula formed
7.What is lunula
8.Peronychium
9.Ingrediance of base coat
10.Why not to file the nails straight down
11.Why cuticle cream can not be left on for long time

Business Studies-ok, common sence actually.

So good luck my friends.

Kayah

RE: Yesterday's ITEC exam

HI. It is me again. I hope I did not scare anyone with the questions [&:]

As I went trough my notes I remembered few more:

1.What effect on the skin has lemon juice and egg white
2.For home mask which skin would benefit from banana mask
3.M E N S- two question
4.AHA'S
5.Biological mask-effect
6.Risorius-where it is
7.Ph of the skin
8.What oil is used in hot oil masks?
9.Functions of the blood
10.Functions of the vessels
11.How would you recognise normal skin
12.Lots of corrective make-up
13.Which skin would benefit the most from steamer
14.Functions of the hair folicle
15.Subcutaneous layer

And again, good luck

Kayah

any examples for itec a&p massage, exam friday major help needed

Itec A&P - past papers revision aid

Hi, a friend recently gave me some test questions (hundreds of them!) for A& P and they are proving very useful for me with revision (my exams end of this month ) :hidesbehindsofa:
I'll post a few, but let me know if you want more :011:
The Cell
1. Where can cytoplasm be found:
a) Inside the nucleus
b) Lining the cell
c) Inside the cell but outside the nucleus
d) Surrounding the nucleolus

2. The circulation of the cell is formed by;
a) Nucleus
b) Vacuoles
c) Centrioles
d) Endoplasmic reticulum

3. The centre of the cell is called:
a) Nucleus
b) Vacuoles
c) Nucleolus
d) Mitochondria

4. A group of tissues join to form;
a) Organ
b) System
c) Organism
d) Cells

5. What is the first stage of mitosis;
a) Anaphase
b) Prophase
c) Metaphase
d) Telophase

6. Cuboidal epithelium is found in;
a) Circulatory sytem
b) Lining of the kidney tubules
c) Lymph vessels
d) Stomach & intestines

7. Which type of tissue contains fibrocytes and mast cells;
a) Adipose
b) White fibrous
c) Areolar
d) Yellow elastic

8. Empty sacs with the cytoplasm are called;
a) Vacuoles
b) Mitochondria
c) Endoplasmic reticulum
d) Golgi apparatus

9. What is a cell made of;
a) Cytoplasm
b) Centrioles
c) Protoplasm
d) Mitochondria

10. Where does the formation of ATP take place;
a) Nucleus
b) Nucleolus
c) Mitochondria
d) Ribosomes

Itec A&P - past papers revision aid

The Skin

1. Desquamation can be defined as;
a) The cells on the surface of the skin are constantly shedding.
b) Granules which are visible in healing after trauma.
c) A pigmentation which gives skin its colour.
d) Cell division.

2. How is melanin produced;
a) By cells called Melanocytes.
b) During the process of desquamation.
c) In the sweat glands of the dermis.
d) By cells called Histiocytes.

3. Erector Pili can be defined as;
a) Hair follicles which produce sebum.
b) Tiny muscles which are attached to each hair.
c) Microscopic capillaries.
d) Nerve endings.

4. Which one of the following cannot be absorbed by the skin;
a) Drugs
b) Water
c) Some chemical substances
d) Essential oils

5. Which skin disorder gives skin a flushed reddened appearance;
a) Acne vulgaris
b) Eczema
c) Herpes zoster
d) Acne rosacea

6. A complete lack of melanocytes causes;
a) Papilloma
b) Albinism
c) Vitiligo
d) Naevae

7. Comedones are also known as;
a) Freckles
b) Hives
c) Blackheads
d) Whiteheads

8. The stratum lucidum is also known as;
a) Clear layer
b) Surface layer
c) Basal layer
d) Granular layer

9. Which pigment gives skin its natural colour;
a) Histamine
b) Melanin
c) Heparin
d) Collagen

10. What is the purpose of collagen in the skin;
a) To keep the skin supple
b) To keep the skin elastic
c) To produce the anticoagulant heparin
d) To plump up the skin

ITEC A&P test question - revision aid

The Skeletal System

1. What parts of the body does the appendicular skeleton support;
a) Shoulder girdle, the upper limbs, the pelvic girdle and lower limbs
b) Torso
c) Head, neck and torso
d) Shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle

2. Which one of the following is an example of a long bone;
a) Carpals
b) Ribs
c) Ethmoid
d) Phalanges

3. The scapula falls under which category of bone;
a) Irregular bone
b) Flat bone
c) Short bone
d) Sesamoid bone

4. Which one of the following is not a function of the skeleton;
a) Protection
b) Support
c) Heat absorption
d) Movement

5. Haversian canals can be defined as;
a) Passageways which run lengthways
b) Passageways which run lengthways through compact bone
c) Passageways which run lengthways through cancellous bone
d) Passageways found in cancellous bone containing oxygen and nutrients

6. Which bones form the bridge of the nose;
a) Ethmoid bones
b) Nasal bones
c) Vomer
d) Lacrimal

7. The frontal bone forms
a) The cheekbone
b) The lower jaw
c) The upper jaw
d) The forehead

8. The turbinator bone is located on which part of the face;
a) Cheek
b) Nose
c) Chin
d) Forehead

9. The back of the cranium is made up of which bone;
a) Occipital
b) Temporal
c) Parietal
d) Lacrimal

10. Where is the foramen magnus located;
a) Occipital bone
b) Mandible
c) Parietal bone
d) Frontal

hi there!
I would like some more questions- louds of them,please. prepering now to exam. have been told that can find them here for free,but can't find nothing beside forum posted.
thanx
have a nice day

Hi marzaone and welcome to Healthypages,

You may be able to find what you are looking for by using the search facility (located in the green bar at the top of any page). Click on it, then click on 'advanced search'- type in your keywords and finally select the forum you want to search in.:)

Warmest wishes- calla lily x

ITEC A&P Exam Aug'08

Hi, I sat the ITEC A&P Exam on Friday 01/08. Seemed OK and not as scary as I thought it was going to be. Questions I can remember were on yellow elastic tissue, which layer of the skin does hair protrude, diabetes, how many tarsals, which tissue is protective and insulating, cranial bones, nasal bone is a flat bone, tinea pedis, tis all i can remember at mo. Hopefully this helps, but as long as you've read Louise Tucker's A&P book you'll be fine. I know you can get heaps of test questions for revision from Ebay or multiplechoicequestions.co.uk. Only a couple of quid but was very useful for me.

Good Luck

🙂

Does anyone have any past papers on VTCT Hot stone Massage, I am starting my course on Saturday,

please help with aroma questions thank you

hi am looking for itec reflexology theory questions for 2010

Hi there, i have my theory exam next monday.. i am wondering if anyone has finished exam and have any questions.. i am doing the itec reflexology exam.. thanks for anyone who can help and good luck to evereyone doin exams..;)

Hi there, i have my theory exam next monday.. i am wondering if anyone has finished exam and have any questions.. i am doing the itec reflexology exam.. thanks for anyone who can help and good luck to evereyone doin exams..;)

secret angel,

If you're asking about current questions and answers, these cannot be posted on the forums, as per these guidelines which are at the top of this forum:

Holistic
Healthypages Moderator

is it possible to get the 2010 reflex questions now?

Hi all!
Just wanderind does anyone have any past questions on VTCT Holistic Massage?...Which I will be sitting soon.
Thankyou!....

hello..am new just saw this page today..i am doing beauty therapy diploma and hair..i already did my course on beauty waiting to do my exams in june with city and guilds..please i would really appreciate if anyone will post me questions from paper 2009 and 2010..i'll do my hair exams in dec as i just started the course this month..please i need your help.

thank you all

Hello evry1
Hope all gud n best of luck to those who r doing thr exams on 2nd for beauty therapy principle 2 and 7th for hairdressing principle 2 both theory.
I'll b doin same ones beauty on 6th and hair on 8th..pls can any1 pls after ur done on the 2nd can u pls reply me with all the questions u have dn?plsss guys and I'll send u all the questions after am done same day..also for those who r doing hair on 7th pls reply me back with the questions plsss,I'll realy apprct a kind hearted people .
Tnx guys

ITEC diploma in gym instruction

Hi, I am taking my exams in Diploma in gym instruction in October. I am unsure about the case studies and what to expect in the practical exam. Also, I'am panicking about the multi-choice papers , has anyone sat this exam recently and what can I expect ?

more questions

Hey, you said youve got hundreds of questions 🙂 Would it be possible to email them to me as im going through past papers for my exam on Weds. Thanks x

Relevant A&P past questions

I'm taking my ITEC A&P exam in a few days time. I've looked at the past papers and questions on here from 2008. Are they still relevant to 2013? Any help and advice on this would be great. Panicing about this exam!!!